Introduction
Poultry is one of the most widely consumed meat throughout the United States and world (Shahbandeh, 2023). The consumption of poultry meat is expected to continuously rise due to population growth, affordability, and the absence of religious restrictions (Mottet and Tempio, 2017). Chicken-breast meat is especially preferred by consumers in the United States due to leanness and versatility. To meet increasing demand, poultry production has undergone remarkable advancements in growth performance and feed efficiency (Collins et al., 2016). Modern broilers achieve an average daily gain of approximately 66 g/d over a 42-d production cycle, with an impressive feed conversion ratio nearing 1.5, outperforming other meat-producing animals such as pigs and cattle (Cobb-Vantress, 2022).
However, rapid genetic selection for growth has brought unintended consequences, particularly in meat quality (Choi et al., 2024a; Mikulski et al., 2011; Tasoniero et al., 2020). One of the key quality traits of meat that influences color, freezing and thawing stability, and consumer acceptance is its water-holding capacity (WHC). WHC refers to the ability of muscle foods to retain water under external forces or processing conditions (Bowker and Zhuang, 2015). It can be evaluated using various analytical approaches, including drip loss, cooking loss, expressible moisture, and centrifugation-based methods, which assess water loss under gravity, applied pressure (e.g., centrifugal force), or heat during storage, processing, cooking, and/or distribution (Barbut, 2024). WHC directly affects not only the appearance and color of meat but also sensory attributes, such as texture and juiciness, while contributing to product yield during processing, storage, and cooking (Bowker and Zhuang, 2015; Yang et al., 2018). Additionally, water loss leads to the loss of some proteins, mainly water-soluble sarcoplasmic proteins (Huff-Lonergan and Lonergan, 2005). The emergence of muscle myopathies, such as wooden breast (WB), spaghetti meat, and white striping, poses significant challenges for the modern poultry industry (Choi et al., 2024a). The incidence of muscle myopathies is high in modern broiler chickens. According to an observational study by Che et al. (2022), only 305 fillets out of 9250 fillets (<5%) did not have any muscle myopathies. These conditions affect not only the visual and textural attributes of chicken-breast meat but also compromise its functional properties, particularly its WHC (Choi et al., 2024b). Hence, WHC is widely recognized as a critical determinant of both the functional and sensory quality of poultry meat. There are several conventional methods used to assess the WHC of chicken meat, including the gravimetric method, centrifugation, capillary suction, compression force, and application-based techniques (Barbut, 2024). These methods are useful for determining the WHC of meat, but they do not provide comprehensive insights into the underlying mechanisms responsible for the observed WHC. The application of magnetic resonance techniques, which provide insights into the mobility of intramyofibrillar and extramyofibrillar water, alongside omics approaches, which help identify genes, proteins, and metabolites associated with WHC, combined with conventional methods, may offer valuable strategies to improve WHC in chicken meat. However, an integrated understanding of the structural, biochemical, and molecular mechanisms governing WHC remains limited, particularly in chicken-breast muscle. Therefore, the objectives of this review are the following: (1) to explore the integration of magnetic resonance techniques and omics approaches to enhance the investigation of WHC in chicken-breast muscle; and (2) to examine the key intrinsic factors influencing WHC.
Magnetic Resonance Techniques
Magnetic based techniques: nuclear magnetic resonance and magnetic resonance imaging
Magnetic resonance techniques are nondestructive analytical tools that use magnetic fields and radiofrequency pulses to investigate the physical and chemical properties of biological tissues (Moser et al., 2017). In meat science, these techniques have gained increasing attention for their ability to characterize water distribution, mobility, and structural changes within muscle tissues without altering the integrity of the sample. Among these, time-domain nuclear magnetic resonance (TD-NMR) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) are the most widely applied in meat research (Renou et al., 2003; Shaarani et al., 2006). TD-NMR is a technique that measures the relaxation behavior of hydrogen protons in a sample after being excited by a radiofrequency pulse in a magnetic field (Van Duynhoven et al., 2010). TD-NMR measures the behavior of hydrogen nuclei (protons) in water molecules when placed in a magnetic field, providing detailed information on water mobility and its distribution within muscle compartments: intramyofibrillar and extramyofibrillar spaces (Santos et al., 2025). This technique enables researchers to differentiate among tightly bound, loosely bound, and free water fractions—parameters closely related to WHC. Low-field NMR refers to instruments operating at lower magnetic strengths, typically below 1 Tesla, and it is commonly used for TD-NMR applications due to its affordability, simplicity, and suitability for food, meat, and biological research (Bertram et al., 2001; Fleury et al., 2013; Shao and Li, 2013). On the other hand, MRI extends the application of NMR by generating spatially-resolved images of water distribution within meat tissue (Renou et al., 2003). This allows visualization of the water location, drip channels, and muscle structure, offering valuable insights into how water is retained or lost during storage and processing. Hence, NMR and MRI offer a noninvasive, real-time approach to assess meat quality attributes, making them powerful complements to conventional WHC measurement methods.
Application of nuclear magnetic resonance in broiler meat water-holding capacity research
TD-NMR offers several advantages in studying WHC in meat. It provides nondestructive analysis, preserving the integrity of the sample, while offering detailed insights into water distribution and mobility within muscle compartments (Bertram and Ersen, 2004). TD-NMR can quantify free, bound, and immobilized water, helping to understand the factors influencing WHC (Figure 1). A longer relaxation time suggests that water is less tightly bound within the muscle tissue (Wiesman et al., 2025). The TD-NMR enables repeated and nondestructive measurement of changes in water properties during cooking, processing, and storage. Table 1 summarizes the application of TD-NMR in related research. Choi et al. (2024b) suggest that extramyofibrillar water may migrate into intramyofibrillar water with a decreased relaxation time during refrigerated storage, potentially suggesting that both the binding strength and quantity of intramyofibrillar water increase over time. In contrast, the quantity of intramyofibrillar water is decreased and accompanied by a reduction in its relaxation time in red meat (Bertram et al., 2002; Cheng et al., 2020; Micklander et al., 2002). The differences in water distribution between chicken-breast meat and red meat may be due to variations in muscle composition, rigor mortis development, fat content, and other physiologic factors. Further studies are needed to investigate how these differences affect water migration during storage in both meat types. Cooking, freezing, and thawing, which denature muscle proteins and alter muscle structures, reduce the relaxation time and amount of intramyofibrillar water in chicken-breast meat (Frelka et al., 2019). This pattern is consistent with observations in red meats such as beef and pork (Bai et al., 2021; Li et al., 2012; Micklander et al., 2002; Song et al., 2021). Christensen et al. (2011) report that the decreased relaxation time of intramyofibrillar water is associated with the loss of intramyofibrillar water with longer relaxation times in porcine meat.
Examples of water distribution in chicken-breast meat, analyzed by time-domain nuclear magnetic resonance. The distribution of transverse relaxation times (T2) and their corresponding water populations or components are shown, including the following: T2b (4–5 ms), representing water strongly bound to macromolecules (hydration water); T21 (40–60 ms), representing immobilized water within the intramyofibrillar compartment (intramyofibrillar water); T22a (80–210 ms), representing free water with lower mobility in the extramyofibrillar compartment (extramyofibrillar water); and T22b (210–500 ms), representing free water with higher mobility in the extramyofibrillar compartment. Relaxation times on the x-axis are displayed on a logarithmic (base 10) scale. Adapted from Choi et al., 2024b.
Applications of time-domain nuclear magnetic resonance for monitoring water property changes in chicken-breast meat during cooking, processing, and storage
| References | Objective | Observations |
|---|---|---|
| Choi et al., 2024b | To investigate the water properties of normal chicken-breast meat and WB meat during refrigerated storage | Extramyofibrillar water (loosely bound water; T22) migrated into intramyofibrillar water (more tightly bound water; T21) during storage. |
| WB exhibited longer relaxation times, indicating weaker water binding to muscle structures. | ||
| WB had a higher proportion of T22 compared to normal breast meat. | ||
| WB experienced greater water loss than normal breast meat, corresponding with the higher T22 content. | ||
| Pang et al., 2021 | To investigate the water properties of chicken-breast meat cooked at different temperatures | Increasing cooking temperatures decreased both the relaxation times and amplitudes of T21 and T22 components. |
| Li et al., 2014 | To investigate the water properties of thawed chicken-breast meat under high-pressure thawing | High-pressure thawing promoted water migration from T22 to T21 fractions. |
| High-pressure thawing reduced thawing loss, coinciding with a decreased T22 amplitude. | ||
| Shaarani et al., 2006 | To investigate the water properties of chicken-breast meat cooked at 200°C for different durations | Longer cooking times increased the relaxation time of T1 water. |
| Cooking decreased all water property components (T1, T21, and T22). |
Abbreviation: WB, wooden breast.
Water loss during storage can negatively impact sensory attributes and consumer acceptance, and NMR has shown potential as a predictive tool for this water loss (Zhu et al., 2017). Pang et al. (2020) demonstrate a strong association between the T21 relaxation time and cook loss (R2 = 0.86). Additionally, the relaxation times of T2b and T22, as well as the relaxation areas of T2b, T21, and T22 (see Figure 1 for meanings of time terms), show significant correlations with both drip loss and cook loss, with R2 values reaching up to 0.73. Moreover, Bertram et al. (2005) and Sun et al. (2021) show that water properties are associated with texture traits such as juiciness, hardness, tenderness, and chewing time in chicken-breast meat. WB, which is characterized by a tougher texture and lower WHC, exhibits greater relaxation time and amplitude of T22 compared to normal chicken-breast meat (Choi et al., 2024b). Based on the differences in water distribution, NMR have potential to be used to identify WB in processing line (Pang et al., 2024; Petracci et al., 2024). Further research is needed to optimize the use of NMR for predicting water loss, evaluating sensory quality, and detecting muscle myopathies in chicken-breast meat by using water property data.
Application of nuclear magnetic resonance in broiler meat research
MRI employs a powerful external magnetic field to align the spins of nuclei with nonzero spin values, such as hydrogen-1 in water molecules within a meat sample (Frelka et al., 2019). The primary difference between MRI and NMR is that MRI can generate images by detecting variations in relaxation times. Frelka et al. (2019) visualize water movement in both unbrined and brined chicken-breast meat during a freeze-thaw cycle. Shaarani et al. (2006) demonstrate the usefulness of MRI for investigating the spatial distribution of T2 values in cooked-chicken meat. However, major limitations to applying MRI include extended acquisition times and restrictions on sample size for analysis (Caballero et al., 2023). In addition, prolonged MRI measurements conducted at room temperature may induce changes in meat properties during scanning. MRI has also been shown to have limitations in spatial resolution, temporal resolution, and in detecting the minimum observable transverse relaxation time of the investigated sample. Despite these limitations, MRI enables the noninvasive assessment of intramuscular water mobility and distribution, providing the potential to relate spatial variations in water behavior to underlying structural alterations associated with muscle myopathies. This capability is particularly valuable for evaluating the progression and severity of myopathic conditions, as well as for improving the understanding of how localized tissue changes contribute to WHC. However, to the best of our knowledge, there are no studies investigating the application of MRI in muscle myopathies. Overall, MRI has proven effective for assessing spatial variations in relaxation times within meat products; however, further research is needed to optimize its application and address current limitations related to acquisition time and sample size.
Omics Techniques
Omics refers to a broad field of biological sciences that involve collective analysis of various molecular components within a biological system (Misra et al., 2019). This includes transcriptomics, which investigate RNA transcripts to understand gene expression patterns; proteomics, which investigate the entire set of proteins produced by an organism; and metabolomics, which focus on identifying and quantifying small molecule metabolites. In recent years, the integration of these approaches, known as multiomics, has gained significant attention. Multiomics involves combining data from multiple omics layers within a single biological system or experiment to provide a more holistic understanding of complex biological processes, interactions, and phenotypic outcomes (Choi et al., 2025b; Subramanian et al., 2020). Diverse omics techniques have been applied in poultry meat research (Choi et al., 2025a; Kong et al., 2024; Zhou et al., 2025). Although the exact etiologies of muscle myopathies remain unclear, omics techniques have been increasingly used to explore their underlying mechanisms (Choi et al., 2024a; Wang et al., 2023b). By capturing comprehensive molecular profiles, these approaches can identify key molecular alterations and pathways that may contribute to the development of these syndromes. Omics approaches may offer valuable insights into the intrinsic factors influencing WHC by identifying specific related proteins, metabolites, and underlying mechanisms. Multiple omics-based studies have been conducted to identify specific genes, proteins, metabolites, and pathways associated with WHC in various types of red meat (Table 2). These studies demonstrate that WHC in red meat is primarily associated with muscle structural proteins and metabolic enzymes. Differences in these components can influence muscle fiber integrity, protein degradation, and energy metabolism, all of which contribute to changes in water distribution and retention within the muscle. Disruptions in Ca2+ homeostasis and glycolytic metabolism appear to play central roles by influencing actin–myosin interactions, postmortem pH decline, and subsequent protein denaturation, ultimately affecting water distribution within the muscle (Huff-Lonergan and Lonergan, 2005). Therefore, multiomics approaches provide a comprehensive framework to elucidate the complex molecular networks underlying WHC, highlighting its multifactorial nature driven by coordinated interactions among structural integrity, metabolic activity, and postmortem biochemical processes across different meat types. These approaches are particularly needed in broiler meat, where rapid postmortem metabolism and muscle characteristics further contribute to variability in WHC.
Application of diverse omics techniques to investigate the intrinsic factors related to water-holding capacity in red meat
| References | Meat Sources | Objective | Observations |
|---|---|---|---|
| Zuo et al., 2016 | Longissimus lumborum muscle of yak | To identify differentially expressed proteins related to WHC during postmortem aging using proteomics | WHC was associated with metabolic enzymes, structural proteins, stress-related proteins, and transport proteins. Key proteins, including MLC, HSP27, and TPI1, were linked to carbon metabolism, glycolysis, amino acid biosynthesis, and pyruvate metabolism. |
| Du et al., 2021 | Longissimus dorsi muscle of Chinese Simmental cattle | To identify candidate genes related to WHC using transcriptomic analysis | WHC was associated with sarcoplasmic Ca2+ regulation, influencing actin–myosin interactions and the synthesis, degradation, and denaturation of proteins such as integrins, myofibrillar, sarcomeric, and sarcoplasmic proteins. |
| Tao et al., 2021 | Tan mutton | To investigate the relationship between oxidized proteins and WHC using proteomics | WHC was strongly correlated with structural proteins and metabolic enzymes. |
| Zhao et al., 2025 | Tan mutton | To investigate genetic and molecular mechanisms underlying WHC using transcriptomics and WGCNA | A total of 270 DEG were identified, enriched in ATP metabolic processes and inhibition of canonical Wnt signaling. Key DEG (e.g., SORBS1, FOXO1, PDE4B, CDH1) showed significant correlations with WHC-related traits. |
| Long et al., 2026 | Longissimus thoracis muscle of cattle and Psoas major muscle of pig | To investigate the regulation of WHC using integrated transcriptomic and proteomic analyses | WHC was associated with cytoskeletal organization and lipid metabolism pathways. Key candidate genes, including PLIN1, SCD, ADIPOQ, THBS2, and ACTC1, were identified, and LIMK1 and ATP2A were strongly correlated with WHC. |
Abbreviations: ACTC1, actin, α, cardiac muscle 1; ADIPOQ, adiponectin; ATP, adenosine triphosphate; ATP2A, ATPase sarcoplasmic/endoplasmic reticulum Ca2+ transporting 1; CDH1, cadherin 1; DEG, differentially expressed genes; FOXO1, Forkhead box O1; HSP27, heat shock protein 27; LIMK1, LIM domain kinase 1; MLC, myosin light chain; PDE4B, phosphodiesterase 4B; PLIN1, perilipin 1; SCD, stearoyl-CoA desaturase; SORBS1, sorbin and SH3 domain containing 1; THBS2, thrombospondin 2; TPI1, triosephosphate isomerase; WGCNA, weighted gene coexpression network analysis; WHC, water-holding capacity.
Intricsic Factors Affecting Water-Holding Capacity
Meat postmortem pH
WHC is closely associated with meat pH (Mir et al., 2017). After slaughter, postmortem glycolysis leads to the conversion of muscle glycogen into lactic acid, resulting in a gradual decline in meat pH (Woelfel et al., 2002). As the pH approaches the isoelectric point of meat proteins (approximate pH 5.4–5.5), the net charge on these proteins is minimized, reducing electrostatic repulsion between protein molecules (Petracci et al., 2015). This causes the myofibrillar structure to contract and decreases the space available to retain water, ultimately impairing the meat’s ability to bind and retain water effectively (Huff-Lonergan and Lonergan, 2005). As a result, WHC is significantly reduced, leading to increased drip loss and lower meat quality. Zhang et al. (2019) demonstrate that variation in the abundance of carbohydrate metabolic enzymes, such as those identified in proteomic analyses, may reflect differences in postmortem energy metabolism and glycolytic flux, thereby contributing to variability in pH decline and WHC. Significant correlations are observed between postmortem pH and both intramyofibrillar and extramyofibrillar water, as assessed by NMR analysis, suggesting a strong association between pH and water distribution in breast meat (Figure 2) (Choi et al., 2025c; Choi et al., 2024b). Consistent with the central role of pH in WHC, Young et al. (2004) report that dietary supplementation with pyruvate mitigated postmortem pH decline, thereby enhancing WHC. However, this approach may negatively affect shelf-life and processing properties, highlighting the need to balance pH modulation with overall meat quality considerations. Hence, these results highlight the central role of postmortem pH in modulating WHC and water distribution, thereby influencing meat quality in breast meat.
The correlation between pH and intramyofibrillar water properties was assessed using nuclear magnetic resonance T2, including transverse relaxation time (T21), proportion of the total water population (P21), and absolute water content (A21/100 g). Data were obtained from previous studies (Choi et al., 2025c; Choi et al., 2024b).
Muscle oxidation
Oxidation, primarily driven by reactive oxygen species, can lead to significant muscle damage. Antioxidant levels are crucial for maintaining the balance between oxidative stress and cellular protection (Surai et al., 2019). When oxidation exceeds the capacity of antioxidants, structural proteins in muscle can be damaged, resulting in impaired WHC and other quality defects. Reducing muscle oxidation, and consequently limiting postmortem protein degradation, represents an effective strategy to preserve WHC and improve overall meat quality in broilers. Previous studies by Elsharkawy et al. (2021) and Wang et al. (2009) demonstrate that supplementing diets with methionine—an amino acid that serves as a precursor for glutathione (GSH), a natural antioxidant (Choi et al., 2020)—enhanced WHC in broiler offspring by reducing drip loss through improved oxidative stability in muscle. Furthermore, Wang et al. (2009) show that dietary supplementation of selenium improved WHC by decreasing drip loss, potentially by decreasing myofibrillar protein hydrolysis and muscle oxidation in pork (Calvo et al., 2016). Apple (2007) and Senobar-Kalati et al. (2012) report that supplementing animal diets with vitamins that possess strong antioxidant properties, particularly vitamin E (α–tocopherol), can improve the WHC of meat by decreasing drip loss. Gao et al. (2022) demonstrate that the dietary supplementation of sodium butyrate and vitamin D3 improved WHC (reduced cooking and drip loss) of chicken-breast meat, potentially by improving antioxidant status, decreasing lipid peroxidation, and altering the fatty acid profile. Phytochemicals with strong antioxidant properties also hold the potential to enhance WHC in chicken-breast meat as demonstrated by Agbetuyi et al. (2024). Shen et al. (2019) demonstrate that bamboo-leaf extracts reduced drip loss of chicken-breast meat by improving total antioxidant capacity and increasing GSH peroxidase activity. Additionally, numerous studies demonstrate that the WHC is enhanced with the improved antioxidant capacity in broilers’ meat in birds fed diverse phytochemicals (Deng et al., 2024; Sosnówka-Czajka et al., 2023; Wang et al., 2024; Wang et al., 2023a; Yu et al., 2021; Zha et al., 2023; Zhang et al., 2024). These effects are largely attributed to the strong antioxidant properties of polyphenol-rich phytochemicals (Choi and Kim, 2020; Mahfuz et al., 2021). However, most studies rely on conventional methods for measuring WHC, such as drip loss and cooking loss. Further research using omics approaches and magnetic resonance-based techniques (e.g., NMR and MRI) is needed to better understand the mechanisms by which antioxidants enhance WHC. Collectively, these findings suggest that enhancing the antioxidant status of muscle through dietary supplementation with amino acids, minerals, vitamins, or phytochemicals is a promising strategy to improve the WHC of broiler meat by reducing oxidative damage and preserving protein integrity during the postmortem period.
Muscle structural integrity
The structural integrity of muscle fibers plays a crucial role in WHC of chicken-breast meat. Well-preserved and tightly organized myofibrils provide a stable network that can better trap and retain water within the intramyofibrillar spaces. Conversely, disrupted or weakened muscle structures, as seen in conditions such as myopathies, reduce the capacity to immobilize water, leading to increased drip loss and lower meat quality (Bowker and Zhuang, 2015). Maintaining or enhancing muscle integrity represents a promising approach to improve WHC by promoting the retention of water within the muscle matrix. Dietary creatine is known to influence muscle structural integrity indirectly by preserving protein stability and reducing postmortem degradation, which help maintain the organization of myofibrils and support WHC (Sun et al., 2022). Wang et al. (2022) demonstrate that dietary supplementation of guanidinoacetic acid (a natural precursor of creatine) improved WHC by increasing pork muscle hydration and decreasing free water, measured by low-field NMR. Consistently, Li et al. (2018) report that dietary supplementation with creatine monohydrate and guanidinoacetic acid increased myofibrillar protein solubility and calpain-1 messenger RNA expression in finishing pigs. These results suggest that the supplementation may influence the postmortem degradation of structural proteins, primarily myofibrillar components, which in turn can help preserve muscle integrity and improve WHC. Furthermore, Liu et al. (2021) demonstrate, through metabolomics analysis, that the improvement in WHC with dietary medium-chain monoglyceride supplementation is associated with increased muscle creatine levels. However, Young et al. (2004) show that dietary supplementation of creatine compromised WHC of chicken-breast meat, potentially by reducing pH of the muscle. While the results were not consistent in the 2 continuous studies (Kwon et al., 2024; Won et al., 2023), the dietary supplementation of glycine, which may synthesize creatine or GSH, improved WHC in the breast meat of offspring broilers. Overall, improving muscle integrity through nutritional strategies, such as dietary creatine or glycine supplementation, shows promise for enhancing WHC in chicken-breast meat; however, the effects may vary depending on species, muscle metabolism, and environmental conditions, highlighting the need for further targeted research.
Conclusion
WHC of chicken-breast meat is a multifactorial trait governed by intrinsic factors such as postmortem pH decline, muscle oxidation, and protein integrity. Advanced techniques, including NMR and MRI, provide noninvasive insights into water distribution and mobility within muscle tissue, surpassing the resolution of conventional drip and cooking-loss measurements. When combined with omics approaches, these techniques enable identification of key genes, proteins, metabolites, and pathways that regulate WHC. Collectively, integrating advanced magnetic resonance and multiomics analyses with traditional WHC assessments offers a powerful framework to elucidate the molecular and structural mechanisms underlying water retention in muscle. Modulating intrinsic factors that influence postmortem pH, oxidative processes, and protein integrity represents a promising approach to improve WHC and overall meat quality in broilers. Future research employing these integrative approaches will be essential to develop targeted strategies for optimizing WHC in poultry meat.
Conflict of Interest
The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
Acknowledgements
This research review was conducted with support from start-up funding (16K001-B51635-200) provided by Texas Tech University in Lubbock, Texas.
Author Contribution
Conceptualization: J.C., B.K., and B.B.; validation: J.C., B.K., and B.B.; investigation: J.C.; data curation: J.C.; writing—original draft preparation: J.C.; writing—review and editing: J.C., B.K., and B.B.; supervision: J.C.; project administration: J.C.; and funding acquisition: J.C. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
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