Introduction
Brazil is the second-largest beef producer in the world, with a production of 10.6 million tons of carcass-equivalent in 2023 (ABIEC, 2024). The country plays a strategic role in global supply. More than 80% of this production occurs in extensive pasture-based systems that are composed mainly of Zebu cattle (Bos indicus), namely the Nellore breed. Within this context, management strategies designed to increase production efficiency are essential to meet the growing demand, especially in pasture-based tropical systems, and decrease negative externalities associated with beef production, such as deforestation and greenhouse gas emissions (Berça et al., 2022).
Among these strategies, early weaning has received particular attention as it favors the rapid recovery of the cow’s body condition, anticipating the return to estrus and overall increasing the herd reproductive efficiency (Nishimura et al., 2023). In Brazilian production systems, early weaning consists of separating calves from their dams at 3 to 5 mos of age, instead of the conventional 7 to 8 mos. Despite the benefits for cows, early weaning represents a period of stress for the calves, which can reduce their immunity levels and compromise body weight gain when compared to animals that are weaned later (Abitante et al., 2024).
In intensive systems, particularly in North American beef cattle production, early weaning is relatively common since calves are quickly transferred to high-concentrate feedlot diets (Smith et al., 2003; Jaeger et al., 2022). Most of the available studies focus on taurine cattle (Bos taurus) or crossbreeds and have reported positive results regarding performance and carcass traits (Arthington et al., 2005; Moriel et al., 2021; Myers et al., 1999). However, taurine (British and Continental) and zebuine cattle (Bos indicus) differ markedly in key physiological characteristics, including age at sexual maturity, growth rate, and patterns of muscle and adipose tissue deposition, which in turn directly influence productive performance as well as carcass and meat traits (Teixeira et al., 2017; Cooke et al., 2020). In contrast to intensive feedlot-based systems, beef production in Brazil is predominantly pasture-based, relying on tropical forages that are often nutritionally limiting; consequently, protein–energy supplementation is a common rearing practice to sustain animal performance (Roth et al., 2017).
Nevertheless, little is known about the effects of this strategy in extensive tropical systems involving Zebu cattle, which are predominant in Brazil and across the tropics and subtropics. Nutritional manipulation during the early postnatal period is known to produce long-lasting effects, including impacts on carcass traits (Du et al., 2013). In Zebu cattle, supplementation after early weaning mainly tries to mitigate the negative effects on the initial performance of calves (Pedro et al., 2023). Thus, in animals raised under tropical conditions, this strategy does not necessarily promote gains greater than those observed for conventional management but rather contributes to early-weaned animals having carcass traits at slaughter similar to those of animals weaned at the traditional age. Within this context, the aim of this study was to compare 2 weaning management strategies: early weaning at 120 d with postweaning protein–energy supplementation and conventional weaning at 205 d, and to evaluate their effects on performance, carcass characteristics, and meat quality traits of pasture-raised Nellore cattle slaughtered at 30 mos of age.
Materials and Methods
The Ethics and Animal Welfare Committee of São Paulo State University approved this experiment (Procedure 0190/2020). The field experiment was carried out on a commercial farm located in the Cáceres municipality, in the State of Mato Grosso (Pantanal biome), Brazil (16° 30′ 2.8″ S, 58° 13′ 29.3″ W).
Animals and treatments
This study was conducted from October 2020 to April 2023 (915 d). Forty Nellore cow–calf pairs, consisting of cows of similar age and parity with male calves born in October, were selected for the study. From birth (day 0) to day 120, all animals were maintained together in a Brachiaria pasture (Urochloa brizantha cv. Ipyporã) with ad libitum access to mineral supplementation. On day 120, twenty calves subjected to early weaning (n = 20) were randomly weaned, separated from their dams, and transferred to a Panicum pasture (Panicum maximum cv. Colonião). Calves subjected to early weaning received a commercial supplement (10 g/ kg body weight [BW]/ d of protein–energy) from day 120 to day 205. The remaining 20 calves subjected to conventional weaning (n = 20) remained with their dams until weaning at 205 d of age and were maintained in a Brachiaria pasture (Urochloa brizantha cv. Ipyporã) with ad libitum mineral supplementation (Figure 1). The composition of the supplement and the characteristics of the pastures are shown in Table 1.
Experimental design of Nellore bulls submitted to early protein–energy supplementation or conventional weaning. CW = Conventional weaning in which calves remained with their dams until 205 d of age. EW = Early weaning in which calves were removed from their dams at 120 d of age and supplemented with 10 g/kg BW/d of protein–energy until 205 d. Some elements of Figure 1 were created using ChatGPT (OpenAI).
Ingredient composition of weaning, growing, and finishing phase.
| Phases | Treatment | |
|---|---|---|
| Early Weaning | Conventional Weaning | |
| Birth to 120 d | Calves with their mothers on Panicum maximum (Coloniao cv.) | |
| Pre and postweaning phase: 120 to 205 d | Panicum maximum (cv. Colonião) + protein–energy supplementation1 (20% CP; 78% TDN) 10 g of DM/kg BW | Calves with their dams on Brachiaria (Urochloa brizantha cv. Ipyporã) mineral supplementation ad libitum2 |
| Growing phase: 205 to 690 d | Urochloa Ipypora + supplementation3 (22% CP; 71% TDN) 3g of DM/kg BW | |
| Finishing phase: 690 to 915 d | Urochloa Ipypora + supplementation3 (22% CP; 71% TDN) 5g of DM/kg BW | |
BW = body weight; CP = crude protein; DM = dry matter; TDN = total digestible nutrients.
Sodium 3.75 g/kg; calcium 25 g/kg; phosphorus 5,000 mg/kg; sulfur 1,500 mg/kg; zinc 188 mg/kg; copper 67 mg/kg; manganese 65 mg/kg; iodine 5.2 mg/kg; cobalt 3.75 mg/kg; selenium 0.85 mg/kg, magnesium 1,000 mg/kg, iron 12.3 mg/kg, chromium 0.5 mg/kg, salinomycin 100 mg/kg, saccharomyces cerevisiae 3×108 CFU/kg.
Sodium 40 g/kg; calcium 110 g/kg; phosphorus 20 g/kg; potassium 40 g/kg; magnesium 56 g/kg; sulfur 31 g/kg; zinc 700 mg/kg; copper 190 mg/kg; fluorine 333 g/kg; manganese 550 mg/kg; iodine 14 mg/kg; cobalt 12 mg/kg; selenium 3.5 mg/kg; vit A 55000 Ul/kg; vit D3 7500 Ul/kg; vit E 750 Ul/kg; monensin 400 mg/kg; NNP 620g /kg.
Sodium 7.8 g/kg; calcium 25 g/kg; phosphorus 4,900 mg/kg; sulfur 1,290 mg/kg; zinc 188 mg/kg; copper 67 mg/kg; manganese 65 mg/kg; iodine 5.2 mg/kg; cobalt 3.75 mg/kg; selenium 0.85 mg/kg, magnesium 1,000 mg/kg, iron 35.7 mg/kg, chromium 1.43 mg/kg, salinomycin 73 mg/kg, saccharomyces cerevisiae 8.5×108 CFU/kg.
After 205 d, all calves were combined in a single group and transferred to Brachiaria grass pasture (Urochloa brizantha cv. Ipypora) each measuring 10 hectares and managed under a rotational grazing system, during the growing phase (May 8 to September 5; 206 to 693 d of age) and were fed with a commercial supplement (3 g/kg BW/day of protein–energy). Subsequently, during the finishing phase (September 7 to April 19; 693 to 914 d), the calves were supplemented with protein–energy (5 g/kg BW/d). The paddock was equipped with a water trough and feeders, providing a minimum of 60 cm of double-sided access per animal. Animals received daily supplementation.
All animals were weighed after a 16 h fast at the beginning of the early weaning phase (120 d of age), at conventional weaning (205 d of age), at the end of the growing phase (693 d of age), and before the slaughter (915 d of age). Average daily gain (ADG) was calculated as the difference in body weight (BW) between the beginning and end of each phase, divided by the number of days.
Slaughter procedure, characteristic carcass, and muscle sampling
After 915 d, all animals were transported by road to a commercial slaughterhouse (307 km from the farm). After 24-h fasting period, all animals were slaughtered following the commercial practices of the Brazilian beef industry, following the RIISPOA–Regulation of Industrial and Sanitary Inspection of Animal Products issued by the Brazilian Federal Government. Afterward, each carcass was divided along the medial plane, extending from the sternum to the spine, resulting in 2 halves of similar size and shape. At the end of the slaughter line, the hot carcass weight (HCW) was determined, which was used to calculate the dressing percentage. Subsequently, after washing and labeling, the half-carcasses were maintained in a chilling chamber at 4°C for a period of 48 h. After 48 h, backfat thickness and ribeye area were measured between the 12th and 13th ribs of the Longissimus thoracis muscle, using a caliper and a planimeter, respectively.
At deboning (48 h postmortem), the Longissimus thoracis between the 11th and 13th ribs from the left side of each carcass was collected, vacuum packaged (25 × 15 × 0.18 cm transparent polyamide/polyethylene pouches 120 μm; with 3 cm3 /m2 /24 h O2 permeability with 3 cm3 /m2 /24 h CO2 permeability) using a Selovac Sealer machine (Selovac, São Paulo, SP, Brazil), and aged for 5 and 15 d in a refrigerator at 2°C. These samples were used to determine pH, color parameters (L*, a*, b*, Chroma, and hue), water-holding capacity, purge losses, cooking losses, Warner-Bratzler shear force, and lipid oxidation. Mineral, fatty acid profile, and intramuscular fat were determined on 5 d of aging time.
Meat quality
pH, instrumental color. The pH measurements were performed using a Hanna digital pH meter (Model HI 99163, Hanna Instruments, Woonsocket, RI, USA) fitted with a penetration electrode. Calibration was carried out with standard buffers of pH 4.0 and 7.0. The color of meat was evaluated using the CIELAB system (L*: lightness; a*: redness; b*: yellowness) with a CR-400 spectrophotometer (Konica Minolta Sensing, Inc., Tokyo, Japan), fitted with a D65 standard illuminant (observation angle of 10°, aperture of 5.0 cm, Y display 0.01–160% reflectance). The unit was calibrated using a plate for the black and white standard, and color readings were taken at 3 locations of the sample. After a 30-min blooming period, as reported by Tkacz et al. (2020), the color measurements were recorded at 3 separate sites on the LT muscle sample, and their mean values were used for L*, a*, and b*. The chroma colorimetric index was then calculated according to the following formula: . Hue angle calculations were performed using:
Warner-Bratzler shear force and water-holding capacity
The shear force of the samples was assessed using the Warner-Bratzler method, following the guidelines of AMSA (1995). The samples were cooked in a commercial electric oven (Feri90 Venâncio, Venâncio Aires, RS, Brazil) preheated to 170°C and fitted with a thermostat to reduce temperature fluctuations. When the internal temperature of the steaks reached 40°C. After being flipped, the steaks were kept in the oven until their internal temperature reached 71°C. The cooked samples were maintained at room temperature for 15 min, weighed, and subsequently refrigerated at 4°C for 24 h. Cooking loss (%) was calculated as the percentage of weight lost relative to the initial weight, using the same samples analyzed for Warner-Bratzler shear force, measured immediately after cooking. To measure Warner-Bratzler shear force, 8 cylindrical cores, each 1.27 cm in diameter, were prepared from the steaks and tested using a Brookfield CT-3 Texture Analyzer (AMETEK Brookfield, Middleborough, MA, USA). The instrument was fitted with a 3.07-mm-thick stainless-steel Warner-Bratzler blade featuring a 60° V-shaped cutting edge and a 25 kg load cell, operating at a speed of 20 cm/min. Shear force values were expressed as the average of 6 measurements per sample, and non-representative cores were discarded. The water-holding capacity was determined by weighing 2.0 ± 0.01 g of meat before and after applying a 10 kg pressure for 5 min. The difference in weight represented the amount of water lost, indicating how much water the sample was able to retain.
Lipid oxidation (malondialdehyde concentration)
Lipid oxidation was assessed using the Thiobarbituric Acid Reactive Substances method as described by Pikul et al. (1989). Five grams (5.0 ± 0.01 g) of meat was homogenized with 20 mL of 7.5% trichloroacetic acid for 2 min. The homogenate was filtered, and 5 mL of the filtrate was mixed with 5 mL of 0.02 M thiobarbituric acid solution in test tubes. The tubes were then incubated in a water bath at 98°C for 40 min. The malondialdehyde concentration was measured spectrophotometrically at 540 nm (Thermo Scientific™ Multiskan™ GO, Waltham, MA, USA). Malondialdehyde concentration was determined using a standard curve of 1,3,3-tetramethoxypropane (0-60 μM), and the results were expressed as mg malondialdehyde per kg of meat.
Intramuscular fat content and fatty acid profile
Intramuscular fat content was determined following the lipid extraction method described by Bligh and Dyer (1959). Briefly, 5 g of meat was subjected to extraction using a chloroform–methanol mixture in a 2:1 ratio. Results of intramuscular fat were expressed as a percentage.
For fatty acid analysis, approximately 0.25 ± 0.01 g of sample (freeze-dried at −60°C and 2.0 hPa) was used. Fatty acid methyl esters (FAME) were prepared by direct transesterification, as described by Cabrol et al. (2022), and analyzed by gas chromatography with flame ionization detection (GC-FID) using a Shimadzu GC2010-Plus gas chromatograph (Shimadzu, Kyoto, Japan) equipped with an SP-2560 capillary column (100 m × 0.25 mm, 0.20 μm film thickness; Supelco, Bellefonte, PA, USA). The injector and detector temperatures were set at 220°C and 280°C, respectively. Helium was used as the carrier gas at a constant flow rate of 1 mL/min. The oven temperature program started at 50°C (held for 1 min), increased at 50°C/min to 150°C (held for 20 min), then increased at 1°C/min to 190°C, followed by an increase at 2°C/min to 220°C, which was held for 30 min. Fatty acids were identified by comparing sample retention times with those of commercial FAME standards (37 Component FAME Mix) and PUFA No. 1 Marine Source Mix (Supelco Inc., Bellefonte, PA, USA). Fatty acids were expressed as a percentage of total FAME (g/100 g FAME).
Mineral content
The quantification of mineral elements was performed according to the procedure described in Ribeiro et al. (2020). Briefly, 0.3 g of samples (freeze-dried −60°C and 2.0 hPa) were digested with HNO3, HCl, and H2O2 in a digestion plate, diluted to 25 ml volumetric flasks, filtered, and analyzed for the minerals in an iCAP 7200 (Thermo, Waltham, PA, USA) Inductively Coupled Plasma Optical Emission Spectrometer (ICP-OES).
Statistical analysis
First, the data were evaluated for normality and homogeneity of variances using the Shapiro-Wilk and Bartlett tests, respectively. Statistical analyses, including analysis of variance and mixed models, were performed using the lme4 v.1.1-35.5 package (Bates et al., 2015) in R v.4.3.3 (R Core Team, 2025). Means were compared using the emmeans v.1.10.3 package (Lenth, 2024).
Body weight and average daily gain during the growth (205 to 693 d) and finishing (693 to 915 d) phases were analyzed as repeated measures over time using a mixed linear model. The model included the type of weaning (early versus conventional), time (period), and their interaction as fixed effects, and animal as a random effect. For carcass traits (HCW, backfat thickness, carcass yield, ribeye area) and meat quality parameters after 5 d of aging (amount of intramuscular fat, mineral content, fatty acid profile), the effects of treatment were analyzed using a linear model that included the type of weaning (early versus conventional) as a fixed effect and the animal as the experimental unit.
A mixed model with repeated measures was applied to the meat quality variables [pH, meat color [L*, a*, b*, chroma, hue]), water-holding capacity, thawing losses, cooking losses, Warner-Bratzler shear force, and malondialdehyde, including the type of weaning, aging time (5 and 15 d), and weaning × aging time interaction as fixed effects. The repeated effect of each calf over time was included as a random effect, and each calf was considered the experimental unit. Significant differences between the means of specific groups were assessed using Bonferroni-adjusted estimated marginal means, adopting a level of significance of P ≤ 0.05 and a tendency of P ≤ 0.10.
Results
Growing and finishing performance and carcass traits
No differences in body weight (BW) were observed between early- and conventionally weaned animals at 120 (P = 0.95) or 205 d of age (P = 0.39; Figure 2). During the growing phase, early-weaned animals exhibited greater average daily gain (ADG; P = 0.009) than conventionally weaned animals; however, BW at 693 d of age did not differ between treatments (P = 0.147).
Performance and carcass traits of Nellore bulls submitted to early protein–energy supplementation or conventional weaning. CW = Conventional weaning in which calves remained with their dams until 205 d of age. EW = Early weaning in which calves were removed from their dams at 120 d of age and supplemented with 10 g/kg BW/d of protein–energy until 205 d. BW = body weight; ADG = average daily gain; HCW = hot carcass weight; REA = ribeye area; BFT = backfat thickness.
During the finishing phase, the ADG (P = 0.321) and BW (P = 0.874) were similar between groups. Additionally, no significant differences (P > 0.05) were observed in carcass traits evaluated, including HCW, ribeye area, backfat thickness, and dressing percentage (Figure 2).
Effect of early weaning on meat traits
There was no effect of the early weaning treatment on pH or meat color parameters (L*, a*, b*, chroma, and hue) (P ≥ 0.05; Table 2). However, an increase in L*, b*, and hue angle and a decrease in a* and chroma values were observed in the samples from 5 to 15 d, regardless of treatment (P < 0.05; Table 2). There were no interactions between treatment and aging time for any of the meat quality parameters. The weaning strategy also had no significant effect on water-holding capacity, thawing losses, cooking losses, Warner – Bratzler shear force, or malondialdehyde levels in meat (P > 0.05; Table 2). With increasing aging time, Warner-Bratzler shear force decreased by 17.15% (from 5 to 15 d), while malondialdehyde concentration increased (P < 0.001; Table 2).
Early and conventional weaning on meat quality parameters of Nellore cattle supplemented during the growing and finishing phase.
| Items | Weaning | P Value | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Early1 | Conventional2 | ||||||
| 5 | 15 | 5 | 15 | TR | Aging3 | TR × Aging | |
| pH | 5.69 ± 0.03 | 5.72 ± 0.03 | 5.68 ± 0.03 | 5.7 ± 0.03 | 0.745 | 0.113 | 0.888 |
| L* | 34.55 ± 0.50 | 35.88 ± 0.50 | 35.41 ± 0.50 | 36.69 ± 0.50 | 0.189 | <0.001 | 0.937 |
| a* | 14.18 ± 0.36 | 11.89 ± 0. 36 | 13.98 ± 0. 36 | 11.48 ± 0. 36 | 0.470 | <0.001 | 0.743 |
| b* | 6.43 ± 0.24 | 7.15 ± 0.24 | 6.71 ± 0.24 | 7.10 ± 0.24 | 0.709 | <0.001 | 0.258 |
| Chroma | 15.6 ± 0.36 | 13.89 ± 0.36 | 15.54 ± 0.36 | 13.54 ± 0.36 | 0.631 | <0.001 | 0.629 |
| hue | 24.41 ± 0.95 | 31.19 ± 0.95 | 25.66 ± 0.95 | 31.88 ± 0.95 | 0.414 | <0.001 | 0.672 |
| WHC, % | 63.90 ± 0.74 | 62.66 ± 0.74 | 63.20 ± 0.74 | 63.42 ± 0.74 | 0.970 | 0.492 | 0.332 |
| Purge loss, % | 12.37 ± 0.51 | 12.35 ± 0.51 | 13.69 ± 0.51 | 13.56 ± 0.51 | 0.051 | 0.840 | 0.887 |
| Cooking loss, % | 29.02 ± 1.17 | 28.82 ± 1.17 | 29.95 ± 1.17 | 30.90 ± 1.17 | 0.224 | 0.772 | 0.570 |
| WBSF, N | 69.31 ± 2.58 | 58.18 ± 2.58 | 71.12 ± 2.58 | 61.58 ± 2.58 | 0.381 | <0.001 | 0.719 |
| MDA, mg/ kg | 0.251 ± 0.02 | 0.569 ± 0.02 | 0.271 ± 0.02 | 0.589 ± 0.02 | 0.344 | <0.001 | 0.980 |
TR × Aging = Interaction between treatment and aging (5 and 15 d of aging time); WHC = water-holding capacity; WBSF = Warner-Bratzler shear force; MDA = malondialdehyde.
Early weaning calves were removed from their dams at 120 d of age and supplemented (10 g/ kg BW/ d of protein–energy) until 205 d.
Conventional weaning remained with their dams until 205 d of age.
5 and 15 d of ageing time; TR = treatment (early and conventional weaning).
Intramuscular fat content did not differ (P = 0.26) between animals subjected to early and conventional weaning (Table 3). Compared to conventional weaning treatment, the early-weaned animals tended to reduce (P < 0.10) the proportions of i-14:0, i-15:0, a-15:0, 19:1c9, and 18:3n-6, while tending to increase (P < 0.10) 18:2n-6, 22:4n-6, and ∑n-6. In addition, the early weaning decreased (P < 0.05) the proportions of a-17:0, 18:1t11, 18:2t11c15, and CLA-c9t11, and increased the n-6:n-3 ratio (P = 0.01) compared to animals subjected to conventional weaning (Table 3). The mineral profiles showed no differences (P > 0.05) between treatments for Na, K, Ca, Mg, Cu, Zn, Fe, or Mn concentrations (Table 4). However, the early-weaned animals showed higher P concentrations (P = 0.044) and tended to have higher S concentrations (P = 0.056).
Early and conventional weaning on fatty acid profile (g/100 g of total fatty acid) of meat from Nellore cattle supplemented during the growing and finishing phase.
| Item | Weaning | P Value | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Early1 | Conventional2 | ||
| Lipid content, % | 1.71 ± 0.47 | 1.90 ± 0.56 | 0.256 |
| 10:0 | 0.02 ± 0.00 | 0.02 ± 0.00 | 0.850 |
| 12:0 | 0.04 ± 0.00 | 0.05 ± 0.00 | 0.539 |
| i-14:0 | 0.07 ± 0.00 | 0.08 ± 0.00 | 0.096 |
| 14:0 | 1.815 ± 0.10 | 2.08 ± 0.10 | 0.180 |
| i-15:0 | 0.19 ± 0.01 | 0.23 ± 0.01 | 0.091 |
| a-15:0 | 0.24 ± 0.01 | 0.27 ± 0.01 | 0.067 |
| 14:1c9 | 0.26 ± 0.02 | 0.31 ± 0.02 | 0.212 |
| 15:0 | 0.38 ± 0.01 | 0.43 ± 0.01 | 0.091 |
| i-16:0 | 0.22 ± 0.01 | 0.24 ± 0.01 | 0.135 |
| 16:0 | 19.62 ± 0.44 | 20.91 ± 0.44 | 0.148 |
| i-17:0 | 0.40 ± 0.001 | 0.43 ± 0.01 | 0.111 |
| 16:1c7 | 0.21 ± 0.00 | 0.22 ± 0.00 | 0.364 |
| 16:1c9 | 1.61 ± 0.06 | 1.75 ± 0.06 | 0.258 |
| a-17:0 | 0.42 ± 0.02 | 0.50 ± 0.02 | 0.046 |
| 17:0 | 0.90 ± 0.03 | 0.96 ± 0.03 | 0.266 |
| i-18:0 | 0.12 ± 0.02 | 0.17 ± 0.02 | 0.204 |
| 17:1c9 | 0.63 ± 0.02 | 0.64 ± 0.02 | 0.603 |
| 18:0 | 18.70 ± 0.45 | 18.17 ± 0.45 | 0.567 |
| 18:1t6/t7/t8 | 0.13 ± 0.00 | 0.14 ± 0.00 | 0.401 |
| 18:1t9 | 0.14 ± 0.00 | 0.15 ± 0.00 | 0.329 |
| 18:1t10 | 0.11 ± 0.00 | 0.12 ± 0.00 | 0.366 |
| 18:1t11 | 1.54 ± 0.07 | 1.83 ± 0.07 | 0.032 |
| 18:1t12 | 0.16 ± 0.00 | 0.16 ± 0.00 | 0.262 |
| 18:1c9 | 27.53 ± 0.63 | 29.24 ± 0.63 | 0.179 |
| 18:1c11 | 1.33 ± 0.03 | 1.27 ± 0.03 | 0.329 |
| 18:1c12 | 0.05 ± 0.00 | 0.05 ± 0.00 | 0.711 |
| 18:1c13 | 0.08 ± 0.01 | 0.10 ± 0.01 | 0.249 |
| 18:1t16/c14 | 0.12 ± 0.01 | 0.13 ± 0.01 | 0.304 |
| 18:1c15 | 0.01 ± 0.00 | 0.02 ± 0.00 | 0.184 |
| 18:2t11c15 | 0.08 ± 0.01 | 0.12 ± 0.01 | 0.001 |
| 18:2n-6 | 11.56 ± 0.66 | 9.33 ± 0.66 | 0.090 |
| 19:1c9 | 0.11 ± 0.00 | 0.13 ± 0.00 | 0.061 |
| 20:0 | 0.14 ± 0.00 | 0.13 ± 0.00 | 0.462 |
| 18:3n-6 | 0.05 ± 0.00 | 0.04 ± 0.00 | 0.071 |
| 20:1c11 | 0.05 ± 0.00 | 0.06 ± 0.00 | 0.390 |
| 18:3n-3 | 2.72 ± 0.15 | 2.43 ± 0.15 | 0.331 |
| CLA-c9t11 | 0.35 ± 0.02 | 0.43 ± 0.02 | 0.013 |
| 20:2n-6 | 0.13 ± 0.01 | 0.11 ± 0.01 | 0.164 |
| 18:3c9t11c15/20:3n-9 | 0.34 ± 0.02 | 0.32 ± 0.02 | 0.563 |
| 22:0 | 0.15 ± 0.01 | 0.13 ± 0.01 | 0.237 |
| 20:3n-6 | 0.68 ± 0.04 | 0.54 ± 0.04 | 0.117 |
| 20:4n-6 | 3.45 ± 0.21 | 2.83 ± 0.21 | 0.142 |
| 20:5n-3 | 0.86 ± 0.06 | 0.75 ± 0.06 | 0.411 |
| 22:4n-6 | 0.35 ± 0.02 | 0.28 ± 0.02 | 0.071 |
| 22:5n-6 | 0.06 ± 0.00 | 0.05 ± 0.00 | 0.399 |
| 22:5n-3 | 1.72 ± 0.12 | 1.52 ± 0.12 | 0.414 |
| 22:6n-3 | 0.12 ± 0.01 | 0.11 ± 0.01 | 0.640 |
| ∑SFA3 | 43.43 ± 0.78 | 44.80 ± 0.78 | 0.388 |
| ∑USFA4 | 56.57 ± 0.78 | 55.20 ± 0.78 | 0.388 |
| ∑MUFA5 | 34.10 ± 0.74 | 36.33 ± 0.74 | 0.134 |
| ∑PUFA6 | 22.47 ± 1.24 | 18.87 ± 1.24 | 0.149 |
| n-37 | 5.43 ± 0.33 | 4.82 ± 0.33 | 0.369 |
| n-68 | 16.27 ± 0.93 | 13.18 ± 0.93 | 0.096 |
| n-6:n-3 | 3.06 ± 0.07 | 2.72 ± 0.07 | 0.013 |
| PUFA:SFA | 0.54 ± 0.04 | 0.44 ± 0.04 | 0.214 |
Early weaning calves were removed from their dams at 120 d of age and supplemented (10 g/ kg BW/ d of protein–energy) until 205 d.
Conventional weaning remained with their dams until 205 d of age.
Sum of 10:0, 12:0, i-14:0, 14:0, i-15:0, a-15:0, 15:0, i-16:0, 16:0, a-17:0, i-17:0, 17:0, i-18:0, 18:0, 20:0, and 22:0.
Sum of 14:1c9, 16:1c7, 16:1c9, 17:1c9, 18:1t6/t7/t8, 18:1t9, 18:1t10, 18:1t11, 18:1t12, 18:1c9, 18:1c11, 18:1c12, 18:1c13, 18:1t16/c14, 18:1c15, 18:2t11c15, 18:2n-6, 19:1c9, 18:3n-6, 20:1c11, 18:3n-3, CLA-c9t11, 20:2n-6, 18:3c9t11c15/20:3n-9, 20:3n-6, 20:4n-6, 20:5n-3, 22:4n-6, 22:5n-3, 22:6n-3.
Sum of 14:1c9, 16:1c7, 16:1c9, 17:1c9, 18:1t6/t7/t8, 18:1t9, 18:1t10, 18:1t11, 18:1t12, C18:1c9, 18:1c11, 18:1c12, 18:1c13, 18:1t16/c14, 18:1c15, 20:1c11.
Sum of 18:2t11c15, 18:2n-6, 18:3n-6, 18:3n-3, CLA-c9t11, 20:2n-6, 18:3c9t11c15/20:3n-9, 20:3n-6, 20:4n-6, 20:5n-3, 22:4n-6, 22:5n-3, 22:6n-3.
Sum of 18:3n-3, 20:5n-3, 22:5n-3, 22:6n-3.
Sum of 18:2n-6, 18:3n-6, 20:2n-6, 20:3n-6, 20:4n-6, 22:4n-6.
Early and conventional weaning on the macromineral (mg/kg dry matter) and micromineral concentration (mg/kg dry matter) of meat from Nellore cattle supplemented during the growing and finishing phase.
| Item | Weaning | P Value | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Early1 | Conventional2 | ||
| Sodium (Na) | 3181.01 ± 1102.45 | 3631.52 ± 1924.27 | 0.172 |
| Potassium (K) | 15868.80 ± 1250.46 | 15664.87 ± 1359.09 | 0.474 |
| Calcium (Ca) | 1433.82 ± 940.21 | 1676.47 ± 1249.18 | 0.572 |
| Magnesium (Mg) | 788.87 ± 433.94 | 774.58 ± 451.71 | 0.855 |
| Phosphorous (P) | 10082.38 ± 531.18 | 9579.50 ± 1423.70 | 0.044 |
| Sulfur (S) | 8816.25 ± 263.16 | 8628.01 ± 682.82 | 0.056 |
| Copper (Cu) | 7.60 ± 2.75 | 7.50 ± 3.09 | 0.362 |
| Zinc (Zn) | 156.44 ± 20.58 | 152.45 ± 13.31 | 0.106 |
| Iron (Fe) | 111.90 ± 23.90 | 113.44 ± 25.14 | 0.746 |
| Manganese (Mn) | 3.45 ± 1.41 | 3.33 ± 1.15 | 0.518 |
Early weaning calves were removed from their dams at 120 d of age and supplemented (10 g/ kg BW/ d of protein–energy) until 205 d.
Conventional weaning remained with their dams until 205 d of age.
Discussion
In the present study, calves subjected to early weaning at 120 d of age and supplemented with protein–energy concentrate (10 g/kg BW/day) exhibited growth performance and body weight at 205 d of age comparable to conventionally weaned calves receiving mineral supplementation. These findings are consistent with previous studies indicating that, although weaning may induce stress and impair immune function when inadequately managed (Rasby, 2007; Lynch et al., 2010; Lynch, 2019; Enríquez et al., 2011; Blanco, 2009), strategic early weaning combined with adequate nutrition can attenuate these negative effects, allowing calves to maintain normal physiological development and productive performance, as reported by Myer et al. (1999) and Shike et al. (2007).
From a nutritional standpoint, the early weaning strategy may play an important role, particularly considering that the experimental period (120 to 205 d of age) coincided with the transition to the dry season in tropical regions, a phase often associated with a decrease in the nutritional quality of tropical grasses (Detmann et al., 2014; Roth et al., 2017; Reis 2012). In this context, the early weaning strategy adopted in the present study was associated with the maintenance of calf performance, representing an additional benefit beyond the primary objective of early weaning, which is to improve reproductive rates of young females, an outcome already well established in the literature (Carlis et al., 2025; Nishimura et al., 2023; Houghton et al., 1990; Arthington and Kalmbacher, 2003; Arthington and Minton, 2004).
The absence of significant differences in body weight and average daily gain between conventionally weaned and early-weaned calves persisted throughout the growing and finishing phases. Although early-weaned calves exhibited greater average daily gain from 205 to 693 d of age, this advantage did not translate into differences in final body weight or carcass traits at slaughter. Taken together, these findings indicate that, within tropical beef production systems, early weaning accompanied by adequate nutritional supplementation is associated with productive outcomes comparable to those typically reported for conventionally weaned cattle, consistent with studies demonstrating that early-weaned calves can achieve similar final body weight and carcass characteristics when postweaning nutrition is properly managed (Schoonmaker et al., 2003). In contrast to our findings, Abitante et al. (2024) reported that early-weaned Nellore calves remained lighter than conventionally weaned animals up to 240 d of age. In their study, animals exhibited lower final body weight and carcass weight at slaughter, even though both groups received protein–energy supplementation before weaning, and no differences in meat quality were observed.
In the present study, early weaning associated with protein–energy supplementation did not affect intramuscular or subcutaneous fat deposition compared with conventional weaning followed by mineral supplementation. Differences in fat accretion reported in the literature are associated with variations in experimental conditions, including breed type, dietary composition, and production system (Meyer et al., 2005). Bos indicus cattle generally exhibit lower carcass fat deposition than Bos taurus breeds, reflecting adaptive physiological mechanisms to tropical environments (Cooke et al., 2020). The pasture-based production system adopted in the present study is typically characterized by lower levels of fat deposition compared with feedlot systems (Torrecilhas et al., 2021).
Additionally, noncastrated males typically present higher anabolic hormone activity, which is associated with increased muscle growth and lower intramuscular fat content (Reis et al., 2024). The results observed in the present study differ from those reported for Bos taurus cattle under intensive feedlot conditions. For example, Meyer et al. (2005) observed that taurine steers early-weaned at 90 d of age and conventionally weaned at 174 d, both finished in a feedlot, showed differences in carcass fat deposition, with early-weaned animals presenting greater subcutaneous fat thickness and higher marbling scores, which is distinct from the patterns observed under pasture-based tropical conditions.
During the postmortem period, several factors can influence final muscle pH, including carcass fat thickness, which in turn affects sarcomere length, a parameter associated with the light-scattering property of the muscle (Hughes et al., 2017). In our study, fat thickness in the carcass was less than 3 mm, the minimum value necessary for carcass protection during cooling to prevent alterations in meat quality (Rotta et al., 2009). However, we did not find any effect on the final pH of meat, with a mean value of 5.7, which is within the normal range of the meat industry (Gallo and Huertas, 2016; Antonelo et al., 2022). Therefore, the absence of differences in both backfat thickness and pH likely represents one of several factors underlying the similar meat quality parameters observed between groups. With respect to lipid oxidation, no differences were observed in malondialdehyde concentrations between conventionally and early-weaned calves. This finding is consistent with the similar total lipid content and proportion of unsaturated fatty acids measured in both groups, which are key factors influencing oxidative stability (Arnold et al., 1993; Humada et al., 2014; Domínguez et al., 2019).
Regardless of weaning strategy, meat tenderness increased throughout the aging period, a response that is consistent with the changes commonly reported during meat aging (Cidrini et al., 2025). According to Fruet et al. (2018), the oxidative process tends to intensify naturally throughout meat aging, which may be associated with the accumulation of metmyoglobin, consequently, resulting in the darkening of meat. These dynamics are commonly reflected in the reduction in a* and chroma values, parameters associated with the appearance of fresh meat, and in the increase in hue angle, suggesting a color instability (Humada et al., 2014). At the same time, proteolysis of myofibrillar proteins occurs during aging, and proteolytic enzymes play a central role in the degradation of structural proteins, reflected in the progressive increase in meat tenderness and reductions in Warner-Bratzler shear force, in agreement with the results observed in the present study (Koohmaraie, 1994).
Some branched-chain fatty acids, whose proportions tended to be higher in meat from conventional weaning treatment (such as i-14:0, i-15:0, a-15:0, and a-17:0), may reflect differences in rumen microbiota composition that are associated with dietary changes (Xin et al., 2021; Zhang et al., 2017). Odd-chain fatty acids, which are produced by rumen bacteria and incorporated into their cell membranes, may contribute a small percentage of lipids to carcass and meat (Bas and Morand-Fehr, 2000; Bas et al., 2003). Ruminal cellulolytic bacteria such as Ruminococcus albus and Butyrivibrio fibrisolvens possess relatively high levels of odd-chain and iso fatty acids (Vlaeminck et al., 2006). Although rumen microbiota was not evaluated in the present study, it is possible that early nutritional differences during the cow–calf phase may have influenced microbial activity, potentially contributing to the observed trends in branched-chain fatty acids (Xin et al., 2021; Zhang et al., 2017). As animals from both groups were managed under identical conditions during the growing and finishing phases, any such effects would likely be associated with early-life nutritional management.
Animals of the conventional weaning treatment exhibited higher levels of CLA-c9t11, a conjugated linoleic acid isomer with potential health benefits to humans (Yang et al., 2015). This fatty acid can be produced in the rumen through the biohydrogenation of both linoleic and linolenic acids; however, most of the CLA-c9t11 in meat results from the introduction of an unsaturated double bond on 18:1t11 by the action of the enzyme stearoyl-CoA desaturase (Δ-9-desaturase) in tissues. The 18:1t11 also derives from the biohydrogenation of both linoleic and linolenic acids in the rumen and is usually associated with animals fed high-forage diets compared with those fed concentrate-based diets (Bessa et al., 2015). Thus, the higher levels of CLA-c9t11 observed in conventionally weaned animals are consistent with their greater proportions of 18:1t11. Although ruminal biohydrogenation was not directly evaluated in the present study, this pattern, together with the tendency toward a lower proportion of 18:2n-6, may suggest a greater extent of ruminal biohydrogenation of 18:2n-6 in conventionally weaned animals compared with early-weaned animals. Future studies should investigate whether changes occur in the microbiota during weaning and whether these alterations persist until the animals reach the finishing phase.
The ratio of n-6:n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids is often cited as a risk factor for coronary heart disease. In the present study, the ratio observed in the meat of animals of both groups was within the recommended range (5:1) (Bishehkolaei and Pathak, 2024). The increase in the ratio of n-6:n-3 in early-weaned animals may be related to a tendency for higher levels of n-6 derivatives in this group, such as 18:2n-6, 18:3n-6, and 22:4n-6, which contributed to a higher total n-6 content. Although raising cattle on grass or with a high level of roughage has been shown to decrease the ratio of n-6:n-3 (Fruet et al., 2016), the higher deposition of 18:2n-6 and its derivatives in early-weaned animals further supports that biohydrogenation was lower in this group, which is in agreement with the findings described above. This suggests that dietary intake during this period likely influenced the fatty acid composition of the meat, contributing to the observed trend toward a higher ratio of n-6:n-3 (Wood et al., 2004).
The retention of phosphorus in meat increases linearly with increasing dietary crude protein concentration (Cole, 1999). This fact suggests that the nutritional strategy herein applied favored energy metabolism, as indicated by the increase in the levels of phosphorus, a fundamental mineral for bone development, cellular metabolism, and intracellular signaling (Manopriya et al., 2022). Nevertheless, no differences in overall performance were observed compared to the other treatments.
Similarly to phosphorus, sulfur concentrations were higher in early-weaned compared to conventionally weaned animals. The 2 groups experienced different weaning strategies and dietary supplementation during the cow–calf phase, while management during the growing and finishing periods remained consistent across treatments. Although differences in sulfur concentration could theoretically be associated with changes in shear force, as sulfur can act as an antioxidant by protecting tissue against postmortem oxidative stress through limiting calpain-1 activity (Rowe et al., 2004; Bin et al., 2017), this did not adversely affect meat tenderness or overall quality in early-weaned animals.
Conclusion
Early weaning of Nellore calves at 120 d of age with protein–energy supplementation was found to be an effective strategy for maintaining productive performance and carcass and meat quality traits comparable to those of animals conventionally weaned at 205 d with mineral supplementation. Despite the alteration in the profile of branched-chain fatty acids, which was possibly related to the rumen microbiota, and a slight decrease in CLA-c9t11, overall meat quality was not compromised. These results indicate that early weaning with supplementation is a practical and viable alternative for nutritional management in beef cattle production systems in Brazil and elsewhere in the tropics, enabling the maintenance of calf growth without compromising meat quality.
Conflict of Interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Acknowledgments
The authors thank the Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo—FAPESP (grant: 2019/12851-1) for the financial and resource support, including the analysis used in this research and a grant to author J. A. Torrecilhas (process number 2023/10240-8). This study was partially funded by the São Paulo Research Foundation (FAPESP, grants 2019/12851-1 and 2023/00511-7, BPE), and by a PVJE—Capes Print grant: 88887.916699/2023-00. Authors M. Mourato and A.M. de Almeida acknowledge funding by the FCT—Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia, I.P. (Lisbon, Portugal) under projects UIDB/04129/2020 of LEAF-Linking Landscape, Environment, Agriculture and Food, Research Unit and LA/P/0092/2020 of Associate Laboratory TERRA. Author S. Alves acknowledges projects CIISA (UIDB/00276/2020) and AL4AnimalS (LA/P/0059/2020), also from the FCT.
Author Contributions
Juliana A. Torrecilhas Investigation, Project administration, Methodology, Validation, Visualization, Writing - original draft, Writing - review & editing; Gustavo Tinoco Investigation, Writing - review & editing; Paloma L. G. Melo Investigation, Writing - review & editing; Gustavo Russo Investigation, Writing - review & editing Rodrigo Torres Writing - review & editing; Welder A. Baldassini Writing - review & editing; Susana P. Alves - Validation; Miguel Mourato - Validation; Otávio Machado Neto Writing - review & editing Marcos Eli Buzanskas Writing - review & editing; Luis A. L. Chardulo Resources, Supervision, Writing - review & editing; Rogério Curi Resources, Writing - review & editing, Supervision; Philipe Moriel Resources, Writing - review & editing, Supervision; André M. de Almeida Resources, Validation, Writing - review & editing, Supervision; Guilherme L. Pereira Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Funding acquisition, Methodology, Software, Project administration, Supervision, Validation, Visualization, Writing - original draft, Writing - review & editing.
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