Introduction
Recently, Ramanathan et al. (2022) found that discoloration costs the beef industry $3.73 billion each year. In the beef industry, the average aging time of beef has increased from 19.0 d to 25.9 d from 2000 to 2015 (Brooks et al., 2000; Martinez et al., 2017). Longer aging periods generally improve tenderness but reduce color shelf-life of beef cuts (Colle et al., 2015; 2016).
Freezing is generally considered an effective method for extending the overall shelf-life of beef and other perishable foods (Food Safety and Inspection Service, 2013). Beef is frozen both in the meat industry and at the household level, as it allows for increased storage time as well as flexibility in inventory (Wheeler et al., 1990; Iskandar et al., 2019). However, freezing is associated with the deterioration of quality attributes in beef products including purge, lipid oxidation, and discoloration (Leygonie et al., 2012; Kim et al., 2018). Literature has also shown that freezing beef steaks increases tenderness (Crouse and Koohmaraie 1990), which has been reported as the most important quality factor affecting customers’ purchasing decisions (Koohmaraie et al., 1995).
Although the combined effects of freezing and aging beef subprimals have been researched extensively (Wheeler et al., 1990; Farouk et al., 2004; Lagerstedt et al., 2008; Hergenreder et al., 2013), there is currently little published research on deep chill (DC) aging or flash freezing (FF). DC aging is holding meat near the freezing point, while not allowing it to freeze. The freezing point of meat is between −0.9°C and −1.5°C (Farouk et al., 2013). FF with the use of dry ice is a method that could improve quality attributes of frozen products. Currently, beef packing facilities utilize dry ice (−78.5°C) in some cases to cool product rapidly, mainly beef trimmings, but a more rapid freezing method also utilizing dry ice should reduce the amount of purge loss during thawing. These potential aging and freezing strategies could be implemented by the beef industry to decrease purge loss, reduce lipid oxidation, and improve color, which would allow for extended periods of storage during transpacific transportation or challenging supply chain times.
The objective of the current study was to determine the effects of aging subprimals for 35 d at various temperatures control ([C] 2°C), DC (−1.5°C), blast freezing ([BF] −20°C), and FF (dry ice, storage at −20°C) on fluid loss, shelf-life, tenderness, and sensory characteristics.
Materials and Methods
Beef procurement
US Department of Agriculture (USDA) choice carcasses were fabricated at 24 h postmortem. At 48 h postmortem, ribs (Institutional Meat Purchase Specifications [IMPS] 112A; n = 32) and top sirloin butts (IMPS 184B; n = 32) from USDA choice carcasses were purchased from a commercial packing facility and transported (4 h) to the University of Idaho Vandal Brand Meat Science Laboratory in a refrigerator van, held at 2°C.
Subprimal preparation
Subprimals were weighed in their original packaging (165a Scale, Adam Equipment Inc., Oxford, CT) then randomly assigned to 1 of 4 postmortem aging treatments, including: 2°C (wet aging; C) until 35 d postmortem; −1.5°C (DC) on day 4 postmortem until 35 d postmortem; −20°C (BF) on day 4 postmortem, frozen for 28 d and allowed to thaw for 3 d at 2°C; and FF at −78.5°C (dry ice; positive C) on day 4 postmortem, frozen storage for 28 d at −20°C and allowed to thaw for 3 d at 2°C.
Subprimals assigned to FF were placed in standard meat lugs (39.37 cm W × 63.5 cm L × 22.22 cm D) and packed with dry ice to the rim of the lug. Each lug held 2 subprimals: top sirloin butts were placed side by side, and ribeye rolls were stacked. The 2 subprimals were separated by dry ice and were not touching each other. Lugs were placed in the freezer (−20°C). After 4 h of storage, 1.4 kg of dry ice was added to each lug.
Fluid loss
Following the 35-d aging period, subprimals were weighed outside of the original packaging. Purge was emptied, the empty vacuum bags were weighed, and the percentage of fluid loss was calculated. Percentage of fluid loss was calculated as follows: initial weight of subprimal in package − weight of package = initial weight; % fluid loss = (initial weight − final weight)/initial weight × 100.
Steak preparation
On day 35 postmortem, the longissimus thoracis (LT) and gluteus medius (GM) were isolated from their respective subprimals. From each muscle, 5 steaks (2.54 cm) were cut: 1 was assigned to color shelf-life, 1 to lipid oxidation, 1 to Warner-Bratzler shear force (WBSF), and 2 steaks were assigned to sensory analysis. Steaks were randomly assigned to an analysis parameter based on location in the subprimal. Immediately following cutting, steaks were sent to the designated analysis.
Color
Steaks assigned to color shelf-life were assessed for 3 consecutive days using both objective and subjective assessments. Each steak was placed in a commercially available foam meat tray (WebstaurantStore, Lancaster, PA) and overwrapped using an oxygen permeable polyvinyl chloride film (oxygen transmission rate: 1,450 cc/645 cm2 per 24 h; water vapor transmission rate 17.0 g/645 cm2 per 24 h; Koch Industries, Inc. #7500-3815; Wichita, KS). Steaks were placed in a retail display room at 2°C. The display room had 400 W natural white lights (Fisherbrand Traceable Dual-Range Light Meter, Fisher Scientific, Waltham, MA). The lights had an average intensity of 849 lux. Steaks’ locations in the retail display room were rotated randomly each day to minimize location effects. Steaks were evaluated for subjective color by 4 trained evaluators each day of retail display. The 4 values were averaged to get 1 value for each parameter per day. Steaks were scored subjectively for the following: oxygenated lean color on a scale from 1 (extremely bright, cherry-red) to 8 (extremely dark red); amount of browning on a scale of 1 (no evidence of browning) to 6 (dark brown); discoloration on a scale from 1 (none) to 5 (extreme); surface discoloration on a scale from 1 (no discoloration [0%]) to 6 (extensive discoloration [81–100%]); and color uniformity on a scale from 1 (uniform, no 2-toning) to 5 (extreme 2-toning) following American Meat Science Association Guidelines for Meat Color Measurement (King et al., 2023). Evaluators were not color blind and were between 20 and 27 y old.
Objective color was assessed using the Nix Pro 2 Color Sensor (Nix Sensor Ltd., Hamilton, Ontario, Canada). The Nix Pro 2 Color Sensor is equipped with a 14 mm diameter measuring area. Using the Illuminant A10 setting, the Nix Pro 2 reported Commission Internationale de l’Eclairage L*, a*, and b* values for each steak on days 0 through 3 of retail display. Two readings were taken from each steak each day, and these values were averaged to get 1 L*, a*, and b* value for each steak per day.
Lipid oxidation
Lipid oxidation analysis was evaluated following the procedure outlined in Colle et al. (2016). Each steak assigned to lipid oxidation analysis was evaluated on days 0 and 3 of retail display. Samples were taken from each steak, avoiding the steak edge and large pieces of fat and connective tissue. A sample (0.245–0.255 g) was evaluated using the thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) assay protocol provided in Appendix D, Protocol Q of the Meat Color Measurement Guidelines (King et al., 2023).
Warner-Bratzler shear force
Immediately following fabrication, steaks designated for WBSF were weighed in the raw state and then cooked on a 2-sided, clamshell-style electric grill (Cuisinart Griddler Deluxe Model GR-150) to an internal temperature of 71°C. Peak internal temperature was monitored using a Type K thermocouple (Copper-Atkins 93230-K EconoTemp). The peak internal temperature for each steak was recorded. Steaks were cooled approximately 30 min at room temperature. Six cores (1.27-cm diameter) were then mechanically removed parallel with the muscle fiber orientation using a drill press-mounted coring device, and shear force was determined by shearing each core perpendicular to the muscle fibers using a WBSF machine (GR Manufacturing, Manhattan, KS). The peak WBSF value (kg) was recorded for each core and averaged to represent the WBSF value of each steak.
Consumer sensory analysis
Following fabrication, steaks assigned to sensory analysis were exposed to 1 d of retail display before being cooked as described above. After cooking, samples were cut and held in a warmer (<10 min) until served. Separate sensory panels were conducted for LT and GM steaks. Panels were held in the Niccolls Building Test Kitchen, which has open seating under white florescent lighting on the University of Idaho campus. Panelists (n = 90 per panel) were recruited via email, flyers, and word of mouth. Once recruited, they signed a consent form and were given a paper ballot that asked them to rate each sample on a scale of 1 to 10, with 1 being the least favorable in its category and 10 being the most favorable in its category. Categories included the following: tenderness, flavor, juiciness, and overall acceptability. Additionally, panelists were asked to answer “yes” or “no” regarding their ability to detect any off flavors from the sample and if they would be willing to purchase the product. Each panelist received 1 sample from each treatment (1.27 cm × 1.27 cm × 2.54 cm cubes) identified with a 3-digit code. Samples were evaluated in a random order. Panelists were supplied with distilled water and unsalted saltine crackers for palate cleansing between samples.
Statistical analysis
Data were analyzed with the MIXED procedure of the Statistical Analysis System V. 9.4 (SAS Institute Inc., Cary, NC). Aging treatment was considered a fixed effect. Color and lipid oxidation data analysis included the day of retail display as a repeated measure. For these parameters, aging treatment, day of retail display, and their interaction were considered fixed effects. Cook loss, shear force, and sensory panel data analysis used end-cook temperature as a covariate where significant. Tukey’s pairwise adjustment was used for subjective color analysis and sensory analysis. For sensory panel data with a “yes” or “no” answer, “yes” was represented as a value of 1.0, and “no” was represented by a value of 0.0. Significance was determined at P < .05.
Results and Discussion
Fluid loss
There were differences (P = .0008; Table 1) among aging treatments for amount of fluid loss following aging of boneless beef ribeye rolls. BF and FF resulted in greater (P < .05) percentages of fluid loss compared to both C and DC, which resulted in lower percentages of fluid loss (Table 1). Additionally, there were differences (P = .0053; Table 1) among aging treatments for percentage of fluid loss following aging of boneless beef top sirloin butts. BF resulted in the greatest amount of fluid loss (P < .05). These data correspond with the general consensus of scientific literature, which suggests that freezing and frozen storage contribute to decreased water-holding capacity (WHC) of meat (Leygonie et al., 2012). Añón and Cavelo (1980) reported that under slow freezing rates, more water is removed from the intracellular space of muscle cells to form large ice crystals, which in turn permits for more thaw loss. Furthermore, the results of Grujić et al. (1993) and Hergenreder et al. (2013) concurred, showing that slow freezing rates lead to large extracellular ice crystals, which result in cryo-damage to muscle proteins and cell membranes. On the other hand, fast freezing has been shown to lead to smaller, intracellular ice crystals that are more uniformly distributed (Grujić et al., 1993; Kim et al., 2017). Therefore, the results of the ribeye roll in the current study contradict the idea that fast freezing decreases purge or thaw loss, as the FF treatment did not reduce fluid loss. In the present study, the large size of the ribeye roll subprimals may have prevented FF from occurring as quickly as previous studies, as the outermost portion of the primal likely froze rapidly and before the center of the primal. The center of the primal likely froze at a much slower rate, allowing larger extracellular ice crystals to form. Therefore, FF resulted in similar amounts of fluid loss upon thawing as BF.
Effect of aging treatment on percentage of fluid loss in ribeye rolls and top sirloin butts
| Subprimal | Treatment | Mean | SEM | P Value |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Ribeye roll | C1 | 0.46b | 0.14 | .0008 |
| DC2 | 0.22b | |||
| BF3 | 1.07a | |||
| FF4 | 0.90a | |||
| Top sirloin butt | C | 2.59b | 0.30 | .0053 |
| DC | 3.15b | |||
| BF | 4.05a | |||
| FF | 2.64b |
BF, blast freezing; C, control; DC, deep chill; FF, flash freezing; SEM, standard error of means.
Aged at 2–4°C until 35 d postmortem.
Aged at −1.5°C from day 4 postmortem until 35 d postmortem.
Blast frozen at −20°C on day 4 postmortem, frozen for 28 d, and allowed to thaw for 3 d at 2°C.
Flash freezing at −78.5°C (dry ice) on day 4 postmortem, frozen storage for 28 d at −20°C, allowed to thaw for 3 d at 2°C.
Means within like subprimals without a common superscript differ.
Retail subjective color
There was an interaction between the day of retail display and aging treatment on subjective scores for oxygenated lean color of LT steaks (P = .0015; Table 2). For this parameter, a lower number is more ideal, indicating a brighter, more cherry-red colored steak, which is more desired by consumers (King et al., 2023). This is largely due to consumers’ association of meat color with its wholesomeness, freshness, and eating quality (Matarneh et al., 2017). In the current study, by day 3 of retail display, the highest numerical value reported, which is indicative of a darker and less desirable color, was for FF steaks (P < .05). There was no interaction between the day of retail display and the aging treatment for amount of browning (P = .0649). There was also no difference among treatments (P = .1028). There was an interaction between the day of retail display and aging treatment for discoloration of LT steaks (P = .0277; Table 2). By day 3 of retail display, C steaks had more discoloration than DC steaks (P < .05), indicating that they were more severely discolored. The other 3 treatments were not different from one another. There was no interaction between the day of retail display and the aging treatment for surface discoloration (P = .0612) and no difference among aging treatments (P = .0959). However, throughout the shelf-life period, surface discoloration increased in all treatments (P < .0001; data not shown). There was no interaction between the day of retail display and the aging treatment for uniformity (P = .0653) and no difference among aging treatments (P = .1019).
Interaction between day of retail display and aging treatment on subjective color measurements and lipid oxidation of longissimus thoracis steaks
| Treatment | Day 0 | Day 1 | Day 2 | Day 3 | SEM | P Value | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Oxygenated lean color1 | C2 | 1.79ef | 2.38def | 2.90cd | 4.24ab | 0.05 | .0015 |
| DC3 | 1.71ef | 2.12def | 2.55de | 3.51bc | |||
| BF4 | 1.74ef | 2.71d | 3.61bc | 4.38ab | |||
| FF5 | 1.49f | 2.46de | 3.65bc | 4.76a | |||
| Discoloration6 | C | 1.00c | 1.61ab | 1.75ab | 2.08a | 0.14 | .0277 |
| DC | 1.00c | 1.19bc | 1.11bc | 1.29bc | |||
| BF | 1.00c | 1.21bc | 1.40abc | 1.59ab | |||
| FF | 1.00c | 1.28bc | 1.25bc | 1.69ab | |||
| Lipid oxidation7 | C | 0.171c | - | - | 0.629a | 0.05 | .0027 |
| DC | 0.139c | - | - | 0.371b | |||
| BF | 0.076c | - | - | 0.231bc | |||
| FF | 0.061c | - | - | 0.179c |
BF, blast freezing; C, control; DC, deep chill; FF, flash freezing; MDA, malondialdehyde; SEM, standard error of means.
Oxygenated lean color: 1(extremely bright cherry-red) to 8 (extremely dark red).
Aged at 2–4°C until 35 d postmortem.
Aged at −1.5°C from day 4 postmortem until 35 d postmortem.
Blast frozen at −20°C on day 4 postmortem, frozen for 28 d, and allowed to thaw for 3 d at 2°C.
Flash freezing at −78.5°C (dry ice) on day 4 postmortem, frozen storage for 28 d at −20°C, allowed to thaw for 3 d at 2°C.
Discoloration: 1 (none) to 5 (extreme).
Measured as mg MDA/kg meat.
Means within parameter without a common superscript differ.
There was an interaction between the day of retail display and the aging treatment for oxygenated lean color (P < .0001; Table 3), amount of browning (P < .0001; Table 3), discoloration (P = .0002; Table 3), surface discoloration (P = .0288; Table 3), and color uniformity (P = .0110; Table 3) of GM steaks. On day 0, there were no differences among treatments for any of the subjective color scores of GM steaks (P > .05). However, oxygenated lean color, amount of browning, discoloration, surface discoloration, and color uniformity scores of GM steaks on day 3 of retail display were highest amongst BF and FF steaks (P < .05; Table 3). Previous research has found that freezing is associated with the deterioration of color quality attributes in beef products (Leygonie et al., 2012; Kim et al., 2018). Additionally, freezing causes meat to become both lighter and less red in color (Vieira et al., 2009; Balan et al., 2019; Choe et al., 2016).
Interaction between day of retail display and aging treatment on subjective color measurements and lipid oxidation of gluteus medius steaks
| Parameter | Treatment | Day 0 | Day 1 | Day 2 | Day 3 | SEM | P Value |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Oxygenated lean color1 | C2 | 2.03g | 2.99f | 3.69de | 4.19bcd | 0.18 | <.0001 |
| DC3 | 1.94g | 2.08ef | 3.61def | 4.26bc | |||
| BF4 | 1.96g | 3.80d | 4.75ab | 5.19a | |||
| FF5 | 1.85g | 3.99cd | 4.46bc | 5.21a | |||
| Amount of browning6 | C | 1.00h | 1.86g | 2.51ef | 3.25cd | 0.19 | <.0001 |
| DC | 1.00h | 1.95fg | 2.55e | 3.16cd | |||
| BF | 1.00h | 2.43efg | 3.54bc | 4.21a | |||
| FF | 1.11h | 2.85de | 3.35cd | 4.06ab | |||
| Discoloration7 | C | 1.00h | 1.98fg | 2.25ef | 2.88bcd | 0.19 | .0002 |
| DC | 1.00h | 2.04f | 2.25ef | 2.83cde | |||
| BF | 1.18h | 2.61def | 3.36abc | 3.80a | |||
| FF | 1.30gh | 2.84cde | 3.15abcd | 3.40ab | |||
| Surface discoloration8 | C | 1.01g | 1.96ef | 2.25de | 2.86bcd | 0.22 | .0288 |
| DC | 1.00g | 1.88ef | 2.26cde | 2.75bcd | |||
| BF | 1.26fg | 2.63bcde | 3.13bc | 3.78a | |||
| FF | 1.36fg | 2.81bcd | 3.03bcd | 3.25ab | |||
| Color uniformity9 | C | 1.00g | 1.64ef | 2.21bcd | 2.14cde | 0.17 | .0110 |
| DC | 1.00g | 1.74def | 2.30bc | 2.36bc | |||
| B | 1.23fg | 2.16cde | 2.80ab | 3.13a | |||
| FF | 1.20fg | 2.45bc | 2.69abc | 2.95a | |||
| Lipid oxidation10 | C | 0.27b | - | - | 1.17a | 0.13 | .0395 |
| DC | 0.24b | - | - | 1.07a | |||
| BF | 0.15b | - | - | 0.94a | |||
| FF | 0.13b | - | - | 0.39b |
BF, blast freezing; C, control; DC, deep chill; FF, flash freezing; MDA, malondialdehyde; SEM, standard error of means.
One (extremely bright cherry-red) to 8 (extremely dark red).
Aged at 2–4°C until 35 d postmortem.
Aged at −1.5°C from day 4 postmortem until 35 d postmortem.
Blast frozen at −20°C on day 4 postmortem, frozen for 28 d, and allowed to thaw for 3 d at 2°C.
Flash freezing at −78.5°C (dry ice) on day 4 postmortem, frozen storage for 28 d at −20°C, allowed to thaw for 3 d at 2°C.
One (no evidence of browning) to 6 (dark brown).
One (none) to 5 (extreme).
One (no discoloration [0%]) to 6 (extensive discoloration [81–100%]).
One (uniform, no 2-toning) to 5 (extreme 2-toning).
Measured as mgMDA/kg meat.
Means within parameter without a common superscript differ.
Retail objective color
There was no interaction observed between the day of retail display and the aging treatment for L* (P = .2070), a* (P = .1281), or b* (P = .5144) values of LT steaks. However, there was a difference among aging treatments for L* (P < .0300; Table 4). C steaks had the highest average L* values (P < .05). In contrast, FF and BF steaks had the lowest L* values (P < .05). Additionally, the day of retail display influenced L* values (P < .0001; data not shown). As days of retail display increased, L* values also increased (P < .05), with the exception of day 2 to 3 (P > .05). Aging treatment (P = .0002; Table 4) and day of retail display (P < .0001; data not shown) influenced a* values. DC steaks had the highest a* values across all 3 d of retail display (P < .05), and FF steaks had the lowest a* values (P < .05). There were no differences in b* values between aging treatments or days of retail display (P = .0981, P = .1306, respectively; data not shown).
Effects of aging treatment on objective color measurements (days 0–3 of retail display) of longissimus thoracis and gluteus medius steaks
| Parameter | Muscle | Treatment | Mean | SEM | P Value |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| L*1 | LT | C2 | 37.32a | 1.00 | .0300 |
| DC3 | 35.51ab | ||||
| BF4 | 34.09bc | ||||
| FF5 | 33.06c | ||||
| a*6 | LT | C | 19.79b | 0.44 | .0002 |
| DC | 21.41a | ||||
| BF | 19.13bc | ||||
| FF | 18.17c | ||||
| a* | GT | C | 22.57a | 0.43 | .0002 |
| DC | 23.21a | ||||
| BF | 21.04b | ||||
| FF | 20.46b | ||||
| b*7 | GT | C | 17.79ab | 0.35 | .0238 |
| DC | 17.85a | ||||
| BF | 16.69bc | ||||
| FF | 16.62c |
BF, blast freezing; C, control; DC, deep chill; FF, flash freezing; GT, gluteus medius; LT, longissimus thoracis; SEM, standard error of means.
Scale of 0 (black) to 100 (white).
Aged at 2–4°C until 35 d postmortem.
Aged at −1.5°C from day 4 postmortem until 35 d postmortem.
Blast frozen at −20°C on day 4 postmortem, frozen for 28 d, and allowed to thaw for 3 d at 2°C.
Flash freezing at −78.5°C (dry ice) on day 4 postmortem, frozen storage for 28 d at −20°C, allowed to thaw for 3 d at 2°C.
Scale of −60 (green) to 60 (red).
Scale of −60 (blue) to 60 (yellow).
Means within parameter without a common superscript differ.
There was no interaction observed between the day of retail display and the aging treatment on L* (P = .1959), a* (P = .3181), or b* (P = .4527) values of GM steaks (data not shown). Aging treatment did not influence L* values (P = .1941). However, there was a difference among the day of retail display for L* values (P = .0010). On day 0, all steaks had the highest L* values, and, by day 3, L* values decreased, indicating the steaks had decreased in lightness over time (P < .05; data not shown). There was a day of retail display effect on a* values (P < .0001). As days of retail display increased, a* values decreased (P < .05), indicating the steaks became less red (data not shown). Additionally, a* values were impacted by aging treatments (P = .0002; Table 4). DC and C steaks resulted in the highest a* values (P < .05), indicating a redder appearance. There was a difference in b* values across day of retail display (P < .0001; data not shown), and among aging treatments (P = .0238: Table 4). DC steaks had the highest b* values (P < .05), while FF steaks had the lowest (P < .05). Several previous studies have also reported that freezing causes meat to become less red in color (Vieira et al., 2009; Balan et al., 2019; Choe et al., 2016).
Lipid oxidation
There was an interaction between the day of retail display and treatment (P = .0027; Table 2) for lipid oxidation of LT steaks. Steaks from the C treatment had the highest TBARS values by day 3 of retail display (P < .05), and steaks from the FF treatment maintained the lowest TBARS values (P < .05) but were similar to BF (P > .05) through day 3 of retail display. There was also an interaction between the day of retail display and the aging treatment for lipid oxidation of GM steaks (P = .0395; Table 3). By day 3 of retail display, steaks from the C, DC, and BF treatments had the highest TBARS values (P < .05), with steaks from the FF treatment maintaining the lowest TBARS values throughout all days of retail display (P < .05). These results were expected since freezing stops chemical reactions, thus reducing the opportunity for lipid oxidation to occur. This is consistent with previous research, which showed that biochemical reactions could still take place in meat frozen and stored above −20°C because sufficient unfrozen water was still available at these temperatures for such reactions to occur (Fennema, 1975). Therefore, Estévez et al. (2011) recommended that meat be frozen at −40°C, as only a small fraction of water is left unfrozen at this temperature. In terms of oxidation, unfrozen water is important because chemical reactions that can occur during frozen storage initiate peroxidation in the meat. This can lead to radical secondary lipid oxidation upon thawing, leading to adverse color changes, changes in odor, and changes in flavor (Leygonie et al., 2012).
Warner-Bratzler shear force
There were differences among aging treatments for mean peak WBSF values of LT steaks (P = .0200; Table 5). FF steaks were tougher than the C and DC steaks (P < .05), but C, DC, and BF steaks were not different from one another (P > .05). Steaks from all aging treatments were considered “very tender” as they were all below the minimum tenderness threshold value of 3.9 kg for WBSF. This is similar to results seen in the 2022 National Beef Tenderness Survey, which showed that most retail steaks were considered “very tender” (Gonzalez et al., 2024).
Effect of aging treatment on consumer sensory characteristics of longissimus thoracis steaks
| Parameter | Treatment | Mean | SEM | P Value |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Acceptability1 | C2 | 6.6ab | 0.2 | .0028 |
| DC3 | 7.0a | |||
| BF4 | 6.3bc | |||
| FF5 | 6.0c | |||
| Tenderness5 | C | 6.8ab | 0.3 | <.0001 |
| DC | 7.1a | |||
| BF | 6.4b | |||
| FF | 5.7c | |||
| Juiciness5 | C | 6.0b | 0.3 | .0127 |
| DC | 6.4a | |||
| BF | 5.7c | |||
| FF | 5.3d | |||
| WBSF6 | C | 2.4b | 0.4 | .0200 |
| DC | 2.5b | |||
| BF | 3.3ab | |||
| FF | 3.8a |
BF, blast freezing; C, control; DC, deep chill; FF, flash freezing; WBSF, Warner-Bratzler shear force.
Values reported on a scale from 1 (least favorable) to 10 (most favorable).
Aged at 2–4°C until 35 d postmortem.
Aged at −1.5°C from day 4 postmortem until 35 d postmortem.
Blast frozen at −20°C on day 4 postmortem, frozen for 28 d, and allowed to thaw for 3 d at 2°C.
Flash freezing at −78.5°C (dry ice) on day 4 postmortem, frozen storage for 28 d at −20°C, allowed to thaw for 3 d at 2°C.
Measured as kg of force.
Within a parameter, means without a common superscript differ.
Additionally, there were differences among WBSF values of GM steaks among aging treatments (P = .0006; Table 6). DC steaks were the most tender (P < .05) with the lowest WBSF values, while BF and FF steaks had the highest mean peak WBSF values (P < .05). However, C, DC, and FF steaks were all considered to be “very tender.” BF steaks were considered “tender,” as the WBSF value associated with these was above 3.9 kg but below 4.4 kg. Conversely, several studies in literature indicate a positive relationship between freezing and tenderness (Winger et al., 1976; Lagerstedt et al., 2008; Vieira et al., 2009; Hergenreder et al., 2013; Cho et al., 2017). However, these measured tenderness differences could be due to the longer frozen aging periods. C and DC steaks were allowed to age at refrigeration temperatures, while BF and FF steaks were held in the freezer during that time, where calpains were not actively tenderizing the product.
Effect of aging treatment on consumer sensory characteristics of gluteus medius steaks
| Parameter | Treatment | Mean | SEM | P Value |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Acceptability1 | C2 | 6.9a | 0.2 | .0028 |
| DC3 | 6.5ab | |||
| BF4 | 6.0bc | |||
| FF5 | 5.9c | |||
| Tenderness1 | C | 6.7a | 0.2 | <.0001 |
| DC | 6.7a | |||
| BF | 5.5b | |||
| FF | 5.8c | |||
| Juiciness1 | C | 6.0a | 0.2 | .0006 |
| DC | 5.3b | |||
| BF | 4.8b | |||
| FF | 5.0b | |||
| WBSF6 | C | 3.4b | 0.1 | <.0001 |
| DC | 3.0c | |||
| BF | 4.0a | |||
| FF | 3.9ab |
BF, blast freezing; C, control; DC, deep chill; FF, flash freezing; SEM, standard error of means; WBSF, Warner-Bratzler shear force.
Values reported on a scale from 1 (least favorable) to 10 (most favorable).
Aged at 2–4°C until 35 d postmortem.
Aged at −1.5°C from day 4 postmortem until 35 d postmortem.
Blast frozen at −20°C on day 4 postmortem, frozen for 28 d, and allowed to thaw for 3 d at 2°C.
Flash freezing at −78.5°C (dry ice) on day 4 postmortem, frozen storage for 28 d at −20°C, allowed to thaw for 3 d at 2°C.
Measured as kg of force.
Within a parameter, means without a common superscript differ.
Consumer sensory evaluation
Demographics of consumers panelists for both panels are included in Table 7. Panelists sampling LT steaks ranged in age from 18 y old to 64 y old and comprised 47 females, 42 males, and 1 unspecified participant. While participants in the GM sensory panel ranged in age from 18 y old to 65 y old, and comprised 55 females, 32 males, and 3 unspecified participants. Between the 2 panels, an average of 81% of the panelists were 18 to 29 y of age. This large number of young adults was because the panel was held on a college campus. These panelists may not be making purchasing decisions for their household currently but are the future decision makers when it comes to what to put on the center of the plate. All panelists were beef eaters and most often consumed ground beef followed by steak.
Demographics of consumer panelists (n = 90/panel)
| Top Butt | Ribeye Roll | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| n | % | n | % | |
| Age | ||||
| 18–19 | 28 | 31.1 | 14 | 15.6 |
| 20–29 | 51 | 56.7 | 53 | 58.9 |
| 30–39 | 7 | 7.8 | 13 | 14.4 |
| 40–49 | 2 | 2.2 | 6 | 6.7 |
| 50+ | 2 | 2.2 | 4 | 4.4 |
| Gender | ||||
| Male | 31 | 34.4 | 42 | 46.7 |
| Female | 56 | 62.2 | 47 | 52.2 |
| Not identified | 3 | 3.3 | 1 | 1.1 |
| Most consumed1 | ||||
| Ground | 56 | 62.2 | 61 | 67.8 |
| Roast | 7 | 7.8 | 3 | 3.3 |
| Steak | 33 | 36.7 | 28 | 31.1 |
| Other | 2 | 2.2 | 2 | 2.2 |
Please indicate the form in which you most commonly consume beef: ground, roast, steak, or other.
Participants in the consumer sensory panel reported no difference in off-flavor of LT steaks across aging treatments (P = .2215; data not shown). There was also no difference in willingness to purchase across aging treatments (P = .1824; data not shown). However, there was a difference in acceptability among aging treatments (P = .0028; Table 5). Panelists’ ratings for acceptability were highest among DC (P < .05), which were similar to C steaks (P > .05), and lowest among FF steaks (P < .05) which were similar to BF steaks (P > .05). In the current study, panelists reported differences in tenderness among aging treatments (P < .0001; Table 5). DC steaks were perceived to be the most tender (P < .05) but similar to C steaks (P > .05), while FF steaks were perceived as the least tender (P < .05). Similarly, in a previous study, trained sensory panelists rated the previously frozen meat significantly less tender than the chilled meat (Lagerstedt et al., 2008). This result could be attributed to the difference in aging periods. Both C and DC subprimals were held at refrigeration temperatures, which allowed calpain activity to continue an additional 28 d. Alternatively, on day 4, calpain activity in the BF and FF subprimals came to a halt when the product was frozen. Therefore, differences in tenderness should be attributed to the difference in aging periods. Additionally, this result could be due in part to fluid loss that resulted in less water available to hydrate the muscle fibers. Juiciness is a major eating quality attribute, and it is influenced by WHC. Juiciness is generally improved with increased WHC, thus a decrease in WHC due to freezing can detrimentally affect the juiciness of meat (Dang et al., 2021). In terms of juiciness, panelists reported a difference among steaks from different aging treatments (P = .0127; Table 5). DC steaks were reported as the juiciest (P < .05), while FF steaks were said to be the least juicy (P < .05). Additionally, Lagerstedt et al. (2008) indicated that sensory panelists perceived cooked beef that was previously frozen to be significantly less juicy than nonfrozen steaks. There was no difference in flavor of LT steaks (P = .5696) as reported by panelists (data not shown). Panelists consistently found LT steaks from the FF treatment to be the least favorable in categories. FF steaks were not only the least tender and the least juicy, but they also had the lowest acceptability ratings. Alternatively, DC steaks had the highest acceptability ratings among LT steaks. They were also said to be the most tender and the juiciest, which reinforces the idea that a combination of tenderness, juiciness, and flavor contributes to the acceptability of a steak (O’Quinn et al., 2018).
There was no difference in off-flavor of GM steaks across aging treatments (P = .2882; data not shown). Additionally, there was no difference in panelists’ satisfaction of samples from different aging treatments (P = .0614; data not shown). There were differences in panelists’ overall ratings of acceptability for samples from different aging treatments (P = .0028; Table 6). Panelists preferred samples from the C and DC treatments versus the FF steaks (P < .05). FF steak samples received the lowest acceptability scores from panelists (P < .05). Moreover, there were differences in ratings for tenderness among different aging treatments (P < .0001; Table 6). C and DC steaks were reported as the most tender (P < .05), while FF steaks were said to be the least tender (P < .05). Panelists’ perceptions of tenderness of GM steaks were similar to those of LT steaks in terms of tenderness (P > .05). There was a difference reported in terms of juiciness of GM steak samples across aging treatments (P = .0006; Table 6). Panelists reported that C samples were the juiciest (P < .05). There was no difference in juiciness among DC, BF, and FF steaks (P > .05).
Conclusion
The results of the current study demonstrate that both refrigeration and frozen storage of beef subprimals contribute to improvement of various attributes. While steaks cut from refrigerated subprimals maintained a redder appearance, steaks cut from frozen subprimals exhibited lower levels of lipid oxidation throughout retail display. Therefore, freezing treatments prove to be beneficial for both food service and export trade due to the mitigation of lipid oxidation, and refrigeration treatments should lead to greater consumer appeal at the retail level, decreasing losses to the industry due to discoloration. Further research is needed to explore possible FF methods that could mitigate fluid loss and maintain a more reddish appearance.
Acknowledgements
This research was coordinated by the National Cattlemen’s Beef Association, a contractor to the Beef Checkoff. We are also appreciative of the personnel at the University of Idaho Vandal Brand Meats Lab that made this research possible.
Author Contributions
Conceptualization, M. N. W., P. D. B. and M. J. C.; methodology, M. N. W., J. N., P. D. B. and M. J. C.; investigation, M. N. W., C. R. S., Y. G., J. B. V. B., J. A. N., B. J. B., P. D. B. and M. J. C.; data curation, M. N. W., C. R. S., Y. G., J. B. V. B., J. A. N., P. D. B. and M. J. C.; formal analysis, M. N. W.; writing—original draft preparation, M. N. W.; writing—review and editing, P. D. B. and M. J. C.; supervision, M. J. C.; project administration, M. N. W., P. D. B. and M. J. C.; funding acquisition, J. B. V. B., J. N., P. D. B. and M. J. C. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
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